4 10. The pétition voeu evolved into what it came to be called "communication"; examples, in turn, of pétitions plaintes - or "petitions" stricto sensu - are found, for example, in the systems of minorities and mandates under the League of Nations and in the trusteeship system under the United Nations11. Those were some of the first international systems to grant procedural capacity directly to individuals and private groups12. Those antecedents, along the first half of the twentieth century, paved the way to the development, within the ambit of the United Nations and under the human rights treaties at global and regional levels, of the contemporary mechanisms of petitions or communications pertaining to violations of human rights13. 11. With the consolidation of those mechanisms, granting direct access to individuals to the international instances, the recognition became evident, also at procedural level, that human rights, inherent to the human person, precede and are above the State and any other form of political organization, and the human being emancipated himself from the domination of the State, whenever it appeared arbitrary. The individual recovered his presence, for the vindication of his rights, at international level, presence which had been denied to him in the historical process of formation of the modern State but which manifested itself in the immediate concern with the human being in the original manuscripts of the so-called founding fathers of international law14 (the derecho de gentes), notably in the perennial lessons - above all the De Indis - Relectio Prior, of 1538-1539 - of Francisco de Vitoria15, the learned lecturer of Salamanca. 12. That transformation, proper of our times, corresponds to the recognition of the necessity that all the States, in order to avoid new violations of human rights, are made responsible for the way they treat all human beings who are under their 10. Cf., e.g., J. Stone, "The Legal Nature of Minorities Petition", 12 British Year Book of International Law (1931) pp. 76-94; M. Sibert, "Sur la procédure en matière de pétition dans les pays sous mandat et et quelques-unes de ses insuffissances", 40 Revue générale de Droit international public (1933) pp. 257-272; Jean Beauté, Le droit de pétition dans les territoires sous tutelle, Paris, LGDJ, 1962, pp. 1256. 11. To them one ought to add other petitioning systems (such as those of Upper Silesia, of the Aaland Islands, of the Sa1ar and of Danzig), the system of navigation of the river Rhine, the experience of the Central-American Court of Justice (1907-1917), the case-law of the Mixed Arbitral Tribunals and of the Mixed Claims Commissions, besides the International Prize Court proposed at the II Peace Conference of the Hague of 1907. Cf. C.A. Norgaard, The Position of the Individual in International Law, Copenhagen, Munksgaard, 1962, pp. 99-172; y, anteriormente, J.-C. Witenberg, "La recevabilité des réclamations devant les juridictions internationales", 41 Recueil des Cours de l'Académie de Droit International de La Haye (1932) pp. 5-135; C.Th. Eustathiades, "Les sujets du Droit international et la responsabilité internationale - nouvelles tendances", 84 Recueil des Cours de l'Académie de Droit International de La Haye (1953) pp. 401-614. 12. Cf. M.E. Tardu, Human Rights - The International Petition System, binders 1-3, Dobbs Ferry N.Y., Oceana, 1979-1985; Tom Zwart, The Admissibility of Human Rights Petitions, Dordrecht, Nijhoff, 1994, pp. 1-237. 13. For a general study, cf. Francisco de Vitoria, Relecciones del Estado, de los Indios, y del Derecho de la Guerra, México, Porrúa, 1985, pp. 1-101; P.P. Remec, The Position of the Individual in International Law according to Grotius and Vattel, The Hague, Nijhoff, 1960, pp. 1-245; F.S. Ruddy, International Law in the Enlightenment, Dobbs Ferry N.Y., Oceana, 1975, pp. 1-364; Association Internationale Vitoria-Suarez, Vitoria et Suarez -Contribution des théologiens au Droit international moderne, Paris, Pédone, 1939, pp. 1-278. 14. Cf. Obras de Francisco de Vitoria - Relecciones Teológicas (ed. T. Urdanoz), Madrid, B.A.C., 1960, pp. 1-1386, esp. pp. 491-726.